Basically, dogs have lived off human scraps for thousands of years and have adapted to this diet. They can do well with a wide variety of foods. But cats, even when they live with humans, have always hunted for their own meat, and commercial cat food has only been a thing for less than 100 years, so they haven't adapted to any human-provided diet. Dogs can do well on a fully meat/organ/bone diet or on a mixed diet with grains and veggies, or even, if an alternate protein source is provided, on a vegetarian diet (although this really isn't recommended), while cats can't digest unprocessed plant matter at all and need meat protein to survive.
NRC/AAFCO minimum protein requirement for dry dog food is 18%. For dry cat food, minimum protein is 26%. So that's a pretty big difference.
I don't think there are breeds of dogs that require more protein but the conditions that dogs live and work in can change the requirements a little. I know sled dogs that work in extreme cold are fed diets that are higher in both protein and fat than most other dogs. Siberian huskies have actually developed a metabolic difference, I don't remember the specifics of it I haven't owned a husky in years, but they actually get more out of the calories that they take in then most dogs.